Implementing Solar Lighting in Portable Restrooms

Implementing Solar Lighting in Portable Restrooms

Factors Influencing Portable Toilet Requirements

Implementing solar lighting in portable restrooms, particularly through the installation of solar panels on porta potties, presents an innovative solution to enhance user comfort and safety while promoting sustainability. The concept involves attaching compact solar panels to the exterior of portable restrooms, which then power LED lights inside the units. This approach not only reduces the dependency on traditional grid electricity but also aligns with environmentally friendly practices.


Virginia's thriving film industry creates demand for on-location restroom facilities during movie and television production porta potty rental Privacy-Enhanced Mail.

Firstly, the practical benefits of this initiative are significant. Portable restrooms are commonly used at outdoor events, construction sites, and remote locations where access to electricity can be challenging. By harnessing solar energy, these facilities can provide illumination without the need for cumbersome generators or long extension cords, which can be both a logistical hassle and a potential tripping hazard.


Moreover, solar-powered lighting ensures that porta potties remain functional and safe to use during nighttime hours or in poorly lit areas. Enhanced visibility inside these units contributes to user comfort by alleviating any anxiety related to navigating in darkness. It also improves hygiene as users can see more clearly when washing hands or using sanitizing stations if provided.


From an environmental standpoint, the adoption of solar technology in portable restrooms helps in reducing carbon footprints associated with conventional power usage. Solar energy is renewable and its utilization decreases reliance on fossil fuels, thereby contributing to lower greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, since portable restrooms are often deployed temporarily, the minimalistic design of solar installations means less waste when compared to traditional electrical setups that might require dismantling after use.


Financially, although there is an upfront cost for installing solar panels and LED systems, the long-term savings are considerable. Once installed, the operational costs plummet as theres no ongoing expense for electricity from the grid or fuel for generators. Over time, this makes solar-powered porta potties a cost-effective solution for businesses that regularly rent or own fleets of these units.


In conclusion, installing solar panels on porta potties for lighting purposes is a forward-thinking strategy that marries convenience with ecological responsibility. It offers a practical enhancement for users while supporting broader goals of energy conservation and sustainability in public facilities management. As awareness about green technologies grows among consumers and businesses alike, such innovations are likely to become more standard in enhancing public amenities across various settings.

Okay, lets talk about battery storage and energy management systems and how they fit into the whole "solar lighting for portable restrooms" picture. I mean, think about it: youve got this self-contained unit, probably out in the middle of nowhere, and you want to give people light inside without having to run a noisy generator all the time. Solar lighting is the obvious answer, right? But capturing sunlight is only half the battle.


The sun doesnt shine 24/7. We all know that. So, you need a way to store the energy you collect during the day to use it at night, or even on cloudy days. Thats where battery storage comes in. Its like a little energy reservoir that holds the power until you need it to light up the restroom. And these arent your grandpas car batteries. Were talking about batteries specifically designed for solar applications – often lithium-ion or newer technologies – that can handle being repeatedly charged and discharged without losing their oomph.


But just having a battery isnt enough. You need something to manage how that energy is used, to make sure youre not draining the battery too quickly or overcharging it. Thats where the energy management system (EMS) steps in. Think of it as the brains of the operation. The EMS monitors how much sunlight is being collected, how much energy is stored in the battery, and how much power the lights are using. It can then intelligently adjust things to maximize the lifespan of the battery and ensure you always have light when you need it.


For instance, an EMS might dim the lights automatically when the battery is getting low, or even switch them off completely if it senses that the battery is about to be completely drained. It might also prioritize charging the battery during peak sunlight hours to make the most of the available solar energy.


So, battery storage and energy management systems are really the unsung heroes of portable restroom solar lighting. They're what make it all work reliably and efficiently, so you can have a well-lit, environmentally friendly loo, even when youre miles away from the nearest power grid. Its a clever combination of technology that makes a real difference.

restroom rentals virginia

Social Signals:

Clear Restroom Social Signal:


How to reach us:

Duration of the Event and Toilet Needs

Maintaining and troubleshooting solar lighting in portable restrooms is crucial for ensuring the systems function efficiently and provide reliable illumination. Solar lighting systems are particularly beneficial in portable restrooms because they offer a sustainable energy solution, reducing both operational costs and environmental impact. However, like any technology, these systems require regular maintenance to keep them in optimal condition.


Routine maintenance of solar lighting involves several key steps. First, its important to clean the solar panels regularly. Dust, dirt, bird droppings, or leaves can significantly reduce the efficiency of solar panels by blocking sunlight. A simple wipe with a soft cloth or a gentle spray of water usually suffices to keep them clean. Additionally, checking the connections between the solar panel, battery, and lights is essential. Over time, these connections can become loose or corroded due to exposure to weather elements or vibrations from transport.


Troubleshooting might be necessary when the lights fail to operate as expected. One common issue could be insufficient charge due to prolonged cloudy weather or improper orientation of the panels towards sunlight. In such cases, manually adjusting the angle of the panels might help maximize sun exposure during peak hours. If this doesnt resolve the issue, inspecting the battery health is advisable. Batteries have a lifespan and might need replacement if they no longer hold a charge effectively.


Another troubleshooting step involves checking for any physical damage to components like wires or LEDs which could lead to short circuits or light failure. If lights flicker or dont turn on at all when they should (usually dusk), examining the light sensor for obstructions or malfunction could solve the problem.


Engaging with users can also aid in troubleshooting; feedback about dimness or non-functioning lights can pinpoint issues not immediately visible during routine checks. For instance, if users report that lights are only working sporadically, it might indicate an intermittent connection issue rather than a complete system failure.


In summary, maintaining solar lighting in portable restrooms involves regular cleaning and inspection routines while troubleshooting requires a systematic approach to diagnose whether the problem lies with power generation (solar panel), storage (battery), distribution (wiring), or output (LEDs). By addressing these aspects proactively, one ensures that these eco-friendly solutions continue to light up portable restrooms reliably, enhancing user experience while promoting sustainability.

Duration of the Event and Toilet Needs

Special Considerations for Different Event Types

Implementing solar lighting in portable restrooms is a decision that can be thoroughly evaluated through a cost-benefit analysis. This approach allows us to weigh the financial and operational implications of transitioning to solar energy, ensuring that the benefits outweigh the costs.


Firstly, the initial investment for solar lighting systems can be significant. Solar panels, batteries, and installation costs can add up, potentially deterring some businesses from making the switch. However, this upfront expense is often offset by long-term savings. Solar energy is free once the system is installed, eliminating ongoing electricity bills. Over time, these savings can accumulate, providing a clear financial advantage.


Moreover, solar lighting contributes to environmental sustainability. By reducing reliance on fossil fuels, businesses can lower their carbon footprint, aligning with global efforts to combat climate change. This environmental benefit can enhance a companys reputation, attracting eco-conscious customers and potentially increasing revenue.


Operational benefits also play a crucial role. Solar lighting systems are low-maintenance and require minimal upkeep, reducing the need for frequent repairs or replacements. This reliability ensures that portable restrooms remain well-lit, enhancing user safety and comfort, which can lead to higher customer satisfaction and repeat business.


Additionally, the aesthetic appeal of solar lighting can be a selling point. Modern, efficient solar lights can create a more inviting atmosphere around portable restrooms, improving the overall user experience. This can be particularly beneficial in events or public spaces where the appearance of facilities can impact the events success.


In conclusion, while the initial cost of implementing solar lighting in portable restrooms may seem daunting, the long-term financial savings, environmental benefits, and operational advantages make it a worthwhile investment. By conducting a thorough cost-benefit analysis, businesses can make informed decisions that not only enhance their facilities but also contribute to a more sustainable future.

 

A soap dispenser is a device that, when manipulated or triggered appropriately, dispenses soap (usually in small, single-use quantities). Soap dispensers typically dispense liquid soap or foam soap. They can be automatic or manually operated by a handle and are often found in public toilets or private bathrooms.

Manual

[edit]

The design of a manual soap dispenser is generally determined by whether the soap comes in liquid, powder or foam form.

Liquid soap

[edit]

When soap is dispensed in liquid form, it is generally in a squeeze bottle or pump. The most popular soap dispensers of this type are plastic pump bottles, many of which are disposable.

William Quick patented liquid soap on August 22, 1865. Minnetonka Corporation introduced the first modern liquid soap in 1980 and bought up the entire supply of plastic pumps used in their dispensers to delay competition entering the market.[1]

Parts

[edit]
  • Actuator – This is the top of the pump from which is pressed down to get the liquid out
  • Closure – Closure is the bottle that is fastened to the bottle's neck. it has a smooth or ribbed surface
  • Outer gasket – Made up of plastic or rubber, it is fit inside the closure and prevents leakage
  • Housing – The main pump that keeps the other components in the right place and sends liquid to the actuator from the dip tube
  • Dip tube – This is the visible tube that carries liquid from the bottom of the bottle up to the housing
  • Interior components – A spring, ball, piston or stem that helps move the liquid to the actuator

Operation

[edit]

The handwash bottle acts much like an air suction device that draws liquid upwards to the user’s hands against the force of gravity. When the user presses down the actuator, the piston compresses the spring and upward air pressure pulls the ball upward, along with the liquid product into the dip tube and then reaches the housing. When the user releases the actuator, the spring returns the piston and actuator to the normal position and the ball returns to its earlier position to stop the backflow of the liquid back to the bottle. This process is called ‘priming' and is only used when the handwash is put in the bottle.

When the user presses the bottle again, the liquid in the housing is drawn from there and is released out of the actuator. The housing is again filled up with the handwash from the bottle, and the process goes on.

Dry soap

[edit]
A vertical stainless steel tube, mounted on a wall, with a crank handle on the side at the bottom, next to the hopper-like horizontal opening from which the grated soap will fall
A soap mill in a public washroom.
A moulded bulge proturding from the underside of a mounled plastic surface; at the base of the bulge, a short wide hollow black plastic cylinder with three narrow, outward-tapering radial spokes. Inside the cylinder, two black crossbars and a cotter pin hold the black plastic part on; behind them, a grater with spiral blades scrapes across the square surface of a block of solid soap.
A train-washroom built-in soap mill from below. When the black spokes are rotated with one finger, the spiral blades rotate against the soap bar visible behind them and flakes of soap fall out the bottom of the device into the other hand.

Some soap dispensers grate, plane[2] or grind solid soap bars to flakes or powder as they are dispensed. About 40 grams (1.4 oz) fresh weight of soap is equivalent to 1 liter (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 U.S. gal) of liquid soap, providing soap for up to 400 handwashings.

Soap mills are common in public washrooms in Germany.[3] Soap graters made specifically for home use[4][2] can be wall-mounted or free-standing (like a pepper grinder) and waterproof for use in a shower.[5][6] Some graters take specially dimensioned soap bars, others will take a range of ordinary soap bar sizes.[3][2]

Dispensers of pre-powdered soaps, such as borax, often take the form of a metal box with a weighted lever; when the lever is pressed, a handful of soap is released. Ground soap is also used to wash laundry.[7]

Foam soap

[edit]

Foam soap dispensers have dual foam pumps that when used, move both air and soap, injecting both together through small openings to create a lather. They can be found in both manual and automatic varieties.

Manual dispensers of foam soap often consist of a large button that squeezes the foam out of a tube. Many liquid soap dispensers operate in this way as well. A few dispensers operate with a lever that pulls forward and squeezes the soap out.

The majority of manual foam soap dispensers have the soap in a bladder in the dispenser in liquid form, as the pump is pressed the liquid soap is pushed through a small foaming nozzle which foams the soap.

Automatic

[edit]
Automatic soap dispenser

An automatic soap dispenser is specifically a hands-free dispenser of liquid or foam soap, and generally can be used for other liquids such as hand sanitizers, shampoos or hand lotions. They are often battery-powered-powered. Hands-free dispensers for water and soap/hand sanitizer have particular virtues for operating theatres and treatment rooms.

Mechanism

[edit]

The touch-free design dispenses the liquid when a sensor detects motion under the nozzle. The electronic components of an automatic soap dispenser allow for a timing device or signal (sound, lights, etc.) which can indicate to the user whether they have washed their hands for the correct amount of time or not.

See also

[edit]
  • Foam pump
  • Hand washing
  • Soapdish

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "The History of Soap and Detergent". Archived from the original on July 14, 2012.
  2. ^ a b c "Trockenseifenspender SoapPlaner". SoapPlaner (in German).
  3. ^ a b Morwood, Peter. "Trockenseifenspender (dry soap dispenser)".
  4. ^ John Brownlee (12 January 2011). "Bar soap dispenser will double as cheese grater in a pinch". Geek.com.
  5. ^ "Soap Grater Looks Practical". Cool Things. January 11, 2011.
  6. ^ "Soap Flakes - Soap Bar Dispensers". The Green Head - Finds Cool New Stuff!.
  7. ^ "How To Make Classic DIY Laundry Detergent With NO Grating!". Farming My Backyard. 10 April 2018.

 

An Ab anbar (water reservoir) with double domes and windcatchers (openings near the top of the towers) in the central desert city of Naeen, Iran. Windcatchers are a form of natural ventilation.[1]

Ventilation is the intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space. Ventilation is mainly used to control indoor air quality by diluting and displacing indoor effluents and pollutants. It can also be used to control indoor temperature, humidity, and air motion to benefit thermal comfort, satisfaction with other aspects of the indoor environment, or other objectives.

The intentional introduction of outdoor air is usually categorized as either mechanical ventilation, natural ventilation, or mixed-mode ventilation.[2]

  • Mechanical ventilation is the intentional fan-driven flow of outdoor air into and/or out from a building. Mechanical ventilation systems may include supply fans (which push outdoor air into a building), exhaust[3] fans (which draw air out of a building and thereby cause equal ventilation flow into a building), or a combination of both (called balanced ventilation if it neither pressurizes nor depressurizes the inside air,[3] or only slightly depressurizes it). Mechanical ventilation is often provided by equipment that is also used to heat and cool a space.
  • Natural ventilation is the intentional passive flow of outdoor air into a building through planned openings (such as louvers, doors, and windows). Natural ventilation does not require mechanical systems to move outdoor air. Instead, it relies entirely on passive physical phenomena, such as wind pressure, or the stack effect. Natural ventilation openings may be fixed, or adjustable. Adjustable openings may be controlled automatically (automated), owned by occupants (operable), or a combination of both. Cross ventilation is a phenomenon of natural ventilation.
  • Mixed-mode ventilation systems use both mechanical and natural processes. The mechanical and natural components may be used at the same time, at different times of day, or in different seasons of the year.[4] Since natural ventilation flow depends on environmental conditions, it may not always provide an appropriate amount of ventilation. In this case, mechanical systems may be used to supplement or regulate the naturally driven flow.

Ventilation is typically described as separate from infiltration.

  • Infiltration is the circumstantial flow of air from outdoors to indoors through leaks (unplanned openings) in a building envelope. When a building design relies on infiltration to maintain indoor air quality, this flow has been referred to as adventitious ventilation.[5]

The design of buildings that promote occupant health and well-being requires a clear understanding of the ways that ventilation airflow interacts with, dilutes, displaces, or introduces pollutants within the occupied space. Although ventilation is an integral component of maintaining good indoor air quality, it may not be satisfactory alone.[6] A clear understanding of both indoor and outdoor air quality parameters is needed to improve the performance of ventilation in terms of occupant health and energy.[7] In scenarios where outdoor pollution would deteriorate indoor air quality, other treatment devices such as filtration may also be necessary.[8] In kitchen ventilation systems, or for laboratory fume hoods, the design of effective effluent capture can be more important than the bulk amount of ventilation in a space. More generally, the way that an air distribution system causes ventilation to flow into and out of a space impacts the ability of a particular ventilation rate to remove internally generated pollutants. The ability of a system to reduce pollution in space is described as its "ventilation effectiveness". However, the overall impacts of ventilation on indoor air quality can depend on more complex factors such as the sources of pollution, and the ways that activities and airflow interact to affect occupant exposure.

An array of factors related to the design and operation of ventilation systems are regulated by various codes and standards. Standards dealing with the design and operation of ventilation systems to achieve acceptable indoor air quality include the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standards 62.1 and 62.2, the International Residential Code, the International Mechanical Code, and the United Kingdom Building Regulations Part F. Other standards that focus on energy conservation also impact the design and operation of ventilation systems, including ASHRAE Standard 90.1, and the International Energy Conservation Code.

When indoor and outdoor conditions are favorable, increasing ventilation beyond the minimum required for indoor air quality can significantly improve both indoor air quality and thermal comfort through ventilative cooling, which also helps reduce the energy demand of buildings.[9][10] During these times, higher ventilation rates, achieved through passive or mechanical means (air-side economizer, ventilative pre-cooling), can be particularly beneficial for enhancing people's physical health.[11] Conversely, when conditions are less favorable, maintaining or improving indoor air quality through ventilation may require increased use of mechanical heating or cooling, leading to higher energy consumption.

Ventilation should be considered for its relationship to "venting" for appliances and combustion equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, boilers, and wood stoves. Most importantly, building ventilation design must be careful to avoid the backdraft of combustion products from "naturally vented" appliances into the occupied space. This issue is of greater importance for buildings with more air-tight envelopes. To avoid the hazard, many modern combustion appliances utilize "direct venting" which draws combustion air directly from outdoors, instead of from the indoor environment.

Design of air flow in rooms

[edit]

The air in a room can be supplied and removed in several ways, for example via ceiling ventilation, cross ventilation, floor ventilation or displacement ventilation.[citation needed]

Furthermore, the air can be circulated in the room using vortexes which can be initiated in various ways:

Ventilation rates for indoor air quality

[edit]

The ventilation rate, for commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) buildings, is normally expressed by the volumetric flow rate of outdoor air, introduced to the building. The typical units used are cubic feet per minute (CFM) in the imperial system, or liters per second (L/s) in the metric system (even though cubic meter per second is the preferred unit for volumetric flow rate in the SI system of units). The ventilation rate can also be expressed on a per person or per unit floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft², or as air changes per hour (ACH).

Standards for residential buildings

[edit]

For residential buildings, which mostly rely on infiltration for meeting their ventilation needs, a common ventilation rate measure is the air change rate (or air changes per hour): the hourly ventilation rate divided by the volume of the space (I or ACH; units of 1/h). During the winter, ACH may range from 0.50 to 0.41 in a tightly air-sealed house to 1.11 to 1.47 in a loosely air-sealed house.[12]

ASHRAE now recommends ventilation rates dependent upon floor area, as a revision to the 62-2001 standard, in which the minimum ACH was 0.35, but no less than 15 CFM/person (7.1 L/s/person). As of 2003, the standard has been changed to 3 CFM/100 sq. ft. (15 L/s/100 sq. m.) plus 7.5 CFM/person (3.5 L/s/person).[13]

Standards for commercial buildings

[edit]

Ventilation rate procedure

[edit]

Ventilation Rate Procedure is rate based on standard and prescribes the rate at which ventilation air must be delivered to space and various means to the condition that air.[14] Air quality is assessed (through CO2 measurement) and ventilation rates are mathematically derived using constants.Indoor Air Quality Procedure uses one or more guidelines for the specification of acceptable concentrations of certain contaminants in indoor air but does not prescribe ventilation rates or air treatment methods.[14] This addresses both quantitative and subjective evaluations and is based on the Ventilation Rate Procedure. It also accounts for potential contaminants that may have no measured limits, or for which no limits are not set (such as formaldehyde off-gassing from carpet and furniture).

Natural ventilation

[edit]

Natural ventilation harnesses naturally available forces to supply and remove air in an enclosed space. Poor ventilation in rooms is identified to significantly increase the localized moldy smell in specific places of the room including room corners.[11] There are three types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind-driven ventilation, pressure-driven flows, and stack ventilation.[15] The pressures generated by 'the stack effect' rely upon the buoyancy of heated or rising air. Wind-driven ventilation relies upon the force of the prevailing wind to pull and push air through the enclosed space as well as through breaches in the building's envelope.

Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally.[16] The technique was generally abandoned in larger US buildings during the late 20th century as the use of air conditioning became more widespread. However, with the advent of advanced Building Performance Simulation (BPS) software, improved Building Automation Systems (BAS), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) design requirements, and improved window manufacturing techniques; natural ventilation has made a resurgence in commercial buildings both globally and throughout the US.[17]

The benefits of natural ventilation include:

  • Improved indoor air quality (IAQ)
  • Energy savings
  • Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
  • Occupant control
  • Reduction in occupant illness associated with sick building syndrome
  • Increased worker productivity

Techniques and architectural features used to ventilate buildings and structures naturally include, but are not limited to:

  • Operable windows
  • Clerestory windows and vented skylights
  • Lev/convection doors
  • Night purge ventilation
  • Building orientation
  • Wind capture façades

Airborne diseases

[edit]

Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza, meningitis or COVID-19.[18] Opening doors and windows are good ways to maximize natural ventilation, which would make the risk of airborne contagion much lower than with costly and maintenance-requiring mechanical systems. Old-fashioned clinical areas with high ceilings and large windows provide the greatest protection. Natural ventilation costs little and is maintenance-free, and is particularly suited to limited-resource settings and tropical climates, where the burden of TB and institutional TB transmission is highest. In settings where respiratory isolation is difficult and climate permits, windows and doors should be opened to reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation requires little maintenance and is inexpensive.[19]

Natural ventilation is not practical in much of the infrastructure because of climate. This means that the facilities need to have effective mechanical ventilation systems and or use Ceiling Level UV or FAR UV ventilation systems.

Ventilation is measured in terms of air changes per hour (ACH). As of 2023, the CDC recommends that all spaces have a minimum of 5 ACH.[20] For hospital rooms with airborne contagions the CDC recommends a minimum of 12 ACH.[21] Challenges in facility ventilation are public unawareness,[22][23] ineffective government oversight, poor building codes that are based on comfort levels, poor system operations, poor maintenance, and lack of transparency.[24]

Pressure, both political and economic, to improve energy conservation has led to decreased ventilation rates. Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning rates have dropped since the energy crisis in the 1970s and the banning of cigarette smoke in the 1980s and 1990s.[25][26][better source needed]

Mechanical ventilation

[edit]
An axial belt-drive exhaust fan serving an underground car park. This exhaust fan's operation is interlocked with the concentration of contaminants emitted by internal combustion engines.

Mechanical ventilation of buildings and structures can be achieved by the use of the following techniques:

  • Whole-house ventilation
  • Mixing ventilation
  • Displacement ventilation
  • Dedicated subaerial air supply

Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV)

[edit]

Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV, also known as Demand Control Ventilation) makes it possible to maintain air quality while conserving energy.[27][28] ASHRAE has determined that "It is consistent with the ventilation rate procedure that demand control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy."[29] In a DCV system, CO2 sensors control the amount of ventilation.[30][31] During peak occupancy, CO2 levels rise, and the system adjusts to deliver the same amount of outdoor air as would be used by the ventilation-rate procedure.[32] However, when spaces are less occupied, CO2 levels reduce, and the system reduces ventilation to conserves energy. DCV is a well-established practice,[33] and is required in high occupancy spaces by building energy standards such as ASHRAE 90.1.[34]

Personalized ventilation

[edit]

Personalized ventilation is an air distribution strategy that allows individuals to control the amount of ventilation received. The approach delivers fresh air more directly to the breathing zone and aims to improve the air quality of inhaled air. Personalized ventilation provides much higher ventilation effectiveness than conventional mixing ventilation systems by displacing pollution from the breathing zone with far less air volume. Beyond improved air quality benefits, the strategy can also improve occupants' thermal comfort, perceived air quality, and overall satisfaction with the indoor environment. Individuals' preferences for temperature and air movement are not equal, and so traditional approaches to homogeneous environmental control have failed to achieve high occupant satisfaction. Techniques such as personalized ventilation facilitate control of a more diverse thermal environment that can improve thermal satisfaction for most occupants.

Local exhaust ventilation

[edit]

Local exhaust ventilation addresses the issue of avoiding the contamination of indoor air by specific high-emission sources by capturing airborne contaminants before they are spread into the environment. This can include water vapor control, lavatory effluent control, solvent vapors from industrial processes, and dust from wood- and metal-working machinery. Air can be exhausted through pressurized hoods or the use of fans and pressurizing a specific area.[35]
A local exhaust system is composed of five basic parts:

  1. A hood that captures the contaminant at its source
  2. Ducts for transporting the air
  3. An air-cleaning device that removes/minimizes the contaminant
  4. A fan that moves the air through the system
  5. An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged[35]

In the UK, the use of LEV systems has regulations set out by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which are referred to as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (CoSHH). Under CoSHH, legislation is set to protect users of LEV systems by ensuring that all equipment is tested at least every fourteen months to ensure the LEV systems are performing adequately. All parts of the system must be visually inspected and thoroughly tested and where any parts are found to be defective, the inspector must issue a red label to identify the defective part and the issue.

The owner of the LEV system must then have the defective parts repaired or replaced before the system can be used.

Smart ventilation

[edit]

Smart ventilation is a process of continually adjusting the ventilation system in time, and optionally by location, to provide the desired IAQ benefits while minimizing energy consumption, utility bills, and other non-IAQ costs (such as thermal discomfort or noise). A smart ventilation system adjusts ventilation rates in time or by location in a building to be responsive to one or more of the following: occupancy, outdoor thermal and air quality conditions, electricity grid needs, direct sensing of contaminants, operation of other air moving and air cleaning systems. In addition, smart ventilation systems can provide information to building owners, occupants, and managers on operational energy consumption and indoor air quality as well as a signal when systems need maintenance or repair. Being responsive to occupancy means that a smart ventilation system can adjust ventilation depending on demand such as reducing ventilation if the building is unoccupied. Smart ventilation can time-shift ventilation to periods when a) indoor-outdoor temperature differences are smaller (and away from peak outdoor temperatures and humidity), b) when indoor-outdoor temperatures are appropriate for ventilative cooling, or c) when outdoor air quality is acceptable. Being responsive to electricity grid needs means providing flexibility to electricity demand (including direct signals from utilities) and integration with electric grid control strategies. Smart ventilation systems can have sensors to detect airflow, systems pressures, or fan energy use in such a way that systems failures can be detected and repaired, as well as when system components need maintenance, such as filter replacement.[36]

Ventilation and combustion

[edit]

Combustion (in a fireplace, gas heater, candle, oil lamp, etc.) consumes oxygen while producing carbon dioxide and other unhealthy gases and smoke, requiring ventilation air. An open chimney promotes infiltration (i.e. natural ventilation) because of the negative pressure change induced by the buoyant, warmer air leaving through the chimney. The warm air is typically replaced by heavier, cold air.

Ventilation in a structure is also needed for removing water vapor produced by respiration, burning, and cooking, and for removing odors. If water vapor is permitted to accumulate, it may damage the structure, insulation, or finishes. [citation needed] When operating, an air conditioner usually removes excess moisture from the air. A dehumidifier may also be appropriate for removing airborne moisture.

Calculation for acceptable ventilation rate

[edit]

Ventilation guidelines are based on the minimum ventilation rate required to maintain acceptable levels of effluents. Carbon dioxide is used as a reference point, as it is the gas of highest emission at a relatively constant value of 0.005 L/s. The mass balance equation is:

Q = G/ (Ci − Ca)

  • Q = ventilation rate (L/s)
  • G = CO2 generation rate
  • Ci = acceptable indoor CO2 concentration
  • Ca = ambient CO2 concentration[37]

Smoking and ventilation

[edit]

ASHRAE standard 62 states that air removed from an area with environmental tobacco smoke shall not be recirculated into ETS-free air. A space with ETS requires more ventilation to achieve similar perceived air quality to that of a non-smoking environment.

The amount of ventilation in an ETS area is equal to the amount of an ETS-free area plus the amount V, where:

V = DSD × VA × A/60E

  • V = recommended extra flow rate in CFM (L/s)
  • DSD = design smoking density (estimated number of cigarettes smoked per hour per unit area)
  • VA = volume of ventilation air per cigarette for the room being designed (ft3/cig)
  • E = contaminant removal effectiveness[38]

History

[edit]
This ancient Roman house uses a variety of passive cooling and passive ventilation techniques. Heavy masonry walls, small exterior windows, and a narrow walled garden oriented N-S shade the house, preventing heat gain. The house opens onto a central atrium with an impluvium (open to the sky); the evaporative cooling of the water causes a cross-draft from atrium to garden.

Primitive ventilation systems were found at the Pločnik archeological site (belonging to the Vinča culture) in Serbia and were built into early copper smelting furnaces. The furnace, built on the outside of the workshop, featured earthen pipe-like air vents with hundreds of tiny holes in them and a prototype chimney to ensure air goes into the furnace to feed the fire and smoke comes out safely.[39]

Passive ventilation and passive cooling systems were widely written about around the Mediterranean by Classical times. Both sources of heat and sources of cooling (such as fountains and subterranean heat reservoirs) were used to drive air circulation, and buildings were designed to encourage or exclude drafts, according to climate and function. Public bathhouses were often particularly sophisticated in their heating and cooling. Icehouses are some millennia old, and were part of a well-developed ice industry by classical times.

The development of forced ventilation was spurred by the common belief in the late 18th and early 19th century in the miasma theory of disease, where stagnant 'airs' were thought to spread illness. An early method of ventilation was the use of a ventilating fire near an air vent which would forcibly cause the air in the building to circulate. English engineer John Theophilus Desaguliers provided an early example of this when he installed ventilating fires in the air tubes on the roof of the House of Commons. Starting with the Covent Garden Theatre, gas burning chandeliers on the ceiling were often specially designed to perform a ventilating role.

Mechanical systems

[edit]
The Central Tower of the Palace of Westminster. This octagonal spire was for ventilation purposes, in the more complex system imposed by Reid on Barry, in which it was to draw air out of the Palace. The design was for the aesthetic disguise of its function.[40][41]

A more sophisticated system involving the use of mechanical equipment to circulate the air was developed in the mid-19th century. A basic system of bellows was put in place to ventilate Newgate Prison and outlying buildings, by the engineer Stephen Hales in the mid-1700s. The problem with these early devices was that they required constant human labor to operate. David Boswell Reid was called to testify before a Parliamentary committee on proposed architectural designs for the new House of Commons, after the old one burned down in a fire in 1834.[40] In January 1840 Reid was appointed by the committee for the House of Lords dealing with the construction of the replacement for the Houses of Parliament. The post was in the capacity of ventilation engineer, in effect; and with its creation there began a long series of quarrels between Reid and Charles Barry, the architect.[42]

Reid advocated the installation of a very advanced ventilation system in the new House. His design had air being drawn into an underground chamber, where it would undergo either heating or cooling. It would then ascend into the chamber through thousands of small holes drilled into the floor, and would be extracted through the ceiling by a special ventilation fire within a great stack.[43]

Reid's reputation was made by his work in Westminster. He was commissioned for an air quality survey in 1837 by the Leeds and Selby Railway in their tunnel.[44] The steam vessels built for the Niger expedition of 1841 were fitted with ventilation systems based on Reid's Westminster model.[45] Air was dried, filtered and passed over charcoal.[46][47] Reid's ventilation method was also applied more fully to St. George's Hall, Liverpool, where the architect, Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, requested that Reid should be involved in ventilation design.[48] Reid considered this the only building in which his system was completely carried out.[49]

Fans

[edit]

With the advent of practical steam power, ceiling fans could finally be used for ventilation. Reid installed four steam-powered fans in the ceiling of St George's Hospital in Liverpool, so that the pressure produced by the fans would force the incoming air upward and through vents in the ceiling. Reid's pioneering work provides the basis for ventilation systems to this day.[43] He was remembered as "Dr. Reid the ventilator" in the twenty-first century in discussions of energy efficiency, by Lord Wade of Chorlton.[50]

History and development of ventilation rate standards

[edit]

Ventilating a space with fresh air aims to avoid "bad air". The study of what constitutes bad air dates back to the 1600s when the scientist Mayow studied asphyxia of animals in confined bottles.[51] The poisonous component of air was later identified as carbon dioxide (CO2), by Lavoisier in the very late 1700s, starting a debate as to the nature of "bad air" which humans perceive to be stuffy or unpleasant. Early hypotheses included excess concentrations of CO2 and oxygen depletion. However, by the late 1800s, scientists thought biological contamination, not oxygen or CO2, was the primary component of unacceptable indoor air. However, it was noted as early as 1872 that CO2 concentration closely correlates to perceived air quality.

The first estimate of minimum ventilation rates was developed by Tredgold in 1836.[52] This was followed by subsequent studies on the topic by Billings [53] in 1886 and Flugge in 1905. The recommendations of Billings and Flugge were incorporated into numerous building codes from 1900–the 1920s and published as an industry standard by ASHVE (the predecessor to ASHRAE) in 1914.[51]

The study continued into the varied effects of thermal comfort, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and biological contaminants. The research was conducted with human subjects in controlled test chambers. Two studies, published between 1909 and 1911, showed that carbon dioxide was not the offending component. Subjects remained satisfied in chambers with high levels of CO2, so long as the chamber remained cool.[51] (Subsequently, it has been determined that CO2 is, in fact, harmful at concentrations over 50,000ppm[54])

ASHVE began a robust research effort in 1919. By 1935, ASHVE-funded research conducted by Lemberg, Brandt, and Morse – again using human subjects in test chambers – suggested the primary component of "bad air" was an odor, perceived by the human olfactory nerves.[55] Human response to odor was found to be logarithmic to contaminant concentrations, and related to temperature. At lower, more comfortable temperatures, lower ventilation rates were satisfactory. A 1936 human test chamber study by Yaglou, Riley, and Coggins culminated much of this effort, considering odor, room volume, occupant age, cooling equipment effects, and recirculated air implications, which guided ventilation rates.[56] The Yagle research has been validated, and adopted into industry standards, beginning with the ASA code in 1946. From this research base, ASHRAE (having replaced ASHVE) developed space-by-space recommendations, and published them as ASHRAE Standard 62-1975: Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality.

As more architecture incorporated mechanical ventilation, the cost of outdoor air ventilation came under some scrutiny. In 1973, in response to the 1973 oil crisis and conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62–81) reduced required ventilation from 10 CFM (4.76 L/s) per person to 5 CFM (2.37 L/s) per person. In cold, warm, humid, or dusty climates, it is preferable to minimize ventilation with outdoor air to conserve energy, cost, or filtration. This critique (e.g. Tiller[57]) led ASHRAE to reduce outdoor ventilation rates in 1981, particularly in non-smoking areas. However subsequent research by Fanger,[58] W. Cain, and Janssen validated the Yagle model. The reduced ventilation rates were found to be a contributing factor to sick building syndrome.[59]

The 1989 ASHRAE standard (Standard 62–89) states that appropriate ventilation guidelines are 20 CFM (9.2 L/s) per person in an office building, and 15 CFM (7.1 L/s) per person for schools, while 2004 Standard 62.1-2004 has lower recommendations again (see tables below). ANSI/ASHRAE (Standard 62–89) speculated that "comfort (odor) criteria are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation rate is set so that 1,000 ppm CO2 is not exceeded"[60] while OSHA has set a limit of 5000 ppm over 8 hours.[61]

Historical ventilation rates
Author or source Year Ventilation rate (IP) Ventilation rate (SI) Basis or rationale
Tredgold 1836 4 CFM per person 2 L/s per person Basic metabolic needs, breathing rate, and candle burning
Billings 1895 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Indoor air hygiene, preventing spread of disease
Flugge 1905 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Excessive temperature or unpleasant odor
ASHVE 1914 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Based on Billings, Flugge and contemporaries
Early US Codes 1925 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Same as above
Yaglou 1936 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Odor control, outdoor air as a fraction of total air
ASA 1946 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Based on Yahlou and contemporaries
ASHRAE 1975 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Same as above
ASHRAE 1981 10 CFM per person 5 L/s per person For non-smoking areas, reduced.
ASHRAE 1989 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Based on Fanger, W. Cain, and Janssen

ASHRAE continues to publish space-by-space ventilation rate recommendations, which are decided by a consensus committee of industry experts. The modern descendants of ASHRAE standard 62-1975 are ASHRAE Standard 62.1, for non-residential spaces, and ASHRAE 62.2 for residences.

In 2004, the calculation method was revised to include both an occupant-based contamination component and an area–based contamination component.[62] These two components are additive, to arrive at an overall ventilation rate. The change was made to recognize that densely populated areas were sometimes overventilated (leading to higher energy and cost) using a per-person methodology.

Occupant Based Ventilation Rates,[62] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004

IP Units SI Units Category Examples
0 cfm/person 0 L/s/person Spaces where ventilation requirements are primarily associated with building elements, not occupants. Storage Rooms, Warehouses
5 cfm/person 2.5 L/s/person Spaces occupied by adults, engaged in low levels of activity Office space
7.5 cfm/person 3.5 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in higher levels of activity, but not strenuous, or activities generating more contaminants Retail spaces, lobbies
10 cfm/person 5 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in more strenuous activity, but not exercise, or activities generating more contaminants Classrooms, school settings
20 cfm/person 10 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in exercise, or activities generating many contaminants dance floors, exercise rooms

Area-based ventilation rates,[62] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004

IP Units SI Units Category Examples
0.06 cfm/ft2 0.30 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is normal, or similar to an office environment Conference rooms, lobbies
0.12 cfm/ft2 0.60 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is significantly higher than an office environment Classrooms, museums
0.18 cfm/ft2 0.90 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is even higher than the previous category Laboratories, art classrooms
0.30 cfm/ft2 1.5 L/s/m2 Specific spaces in sports or entertainment where contaminants are released Sports, entertainment
0.48 cfm/ft2 2.4 L/s/m2 Reserved for indoor swimming areas, where chemical concentrations are high Indoor swimming areas

The addition of occupant- and area-based ventilation rates found in the tables above often results in significantly reduced rates compared to the former standard. This is compensated in other sections of the standard which require that this minimum amount of air is delivered to the breathing zone of the individual occupant at all times. The total outdoor air intake of the ventilation system (in multiple-zone variable air volume (VAV) systems) might therefore be similar to the airflow required by the 1989 standard.
From 1999 to 2010, there was considerable development of the application protocol for ventilation rates. These advancements address occupant- and process-based ventilation rates, room ventilation effectiveness, and system ventilation effectiveness[63]

Problems

[edit]
  • In hot, humid climates, unconditioned ventilation air can daily deliver approximately 260 milliliters of water for each cubic meters per hour (m3/h) of outdoor air (or one pound of water each day for each cubic feet per minute of outdoor air per day), annual average.[citation needed] This is a great deal of moisture and can create serious indoor moisture and mold problems. For example, given a 150 m2 building with an airflow of 180 m3/h this could result in about 47 liters of water accumulated per day.
  • Ventilation efficiency is determined by design and layout, and is dependent upon the placement and proximity of diffusers and return air outlets. If they are located closely together, supply air may mix with stale air, decreasing the efficiency of the HVAC system, and creating air quality problems.
  • System imbalances occur when components of the HVAC system are improperly adjusted or installed and can create pressure differences (too much-circulating air creating a draft or too little circulating air creating stagnancy).
  • Cross-contamination occurs when pressure differences arise, forcing potentially contaminated air from one zone to an uncontaminated zone. This often involves undesired odors or VOCs.
  • Re-entry of exhaust air occurs when exhaust outlets and fresh air intakes are either too close, prevailing winds change exhaust patterns or infiltration between intake and exhaust air flows.
  • Entrainment of contaminated outdoor air through intake flows will result in indoor air contamination. There are a variety of contaminated air sources, ranging from industrial effluent to VOCs put off by nearby construction work.[64] A recent study revealed that in urban European buildings equipped with ventilation systems lacking outdoor air filtration, the exposure to outdoor-originating pollutants indoors resulted in more Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) than exposure to indoor-emitted pollutants.[65]

See also

[edit]
  • Architectural engineering
  • Biological safety
  • Cleanroom
  • Environmental tobacco smoke
  • Fume hood
  • Head-end power
  • Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
  • Heat recovery ventilation
  • Mechanical engineering
  • Room air distribution
  • Sick building syndrome
  • Siheyuan
  • Solar chimney
  • Tulou
  • Windcatcher

References

[edit]
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  7. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2024). "European residential ventilation: Investigating the impact on health and energy demand". Energy and Buildings. 304 113839. Bibcode:2024EneBu.30413839B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113839.
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  63. ^ Stanke, DA. 2007. "Standard 62.1-2004: Stricter or Not?" ASHRAE IAQ Applications, Spring 2006. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) accessed 11 June 2014
  64. ^ US EPA. Section 2: Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2009.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  65. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2024). "European residential ventilation: Investigating the impact on health and energy demand". Energy and Buildings. 304 113839. Bibcode:2024EneBu.30413839B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113839.
[edit]

Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

[edit]
  • Publications from the Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC)

[edit]
  • Publications from the International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC) ventilation-related research projects-annexes:
    • EBC Annex 9 Minimum Ventilation Rates
    • EBC Annex 18 Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems
    • EBC Annex 26 Energy Efficient Ventilation of Large Enclosures
    • EBC Annex 27 Evaluation and Demonstration of Domestic Ventilation Systems
    • EBC Annex 35 Control Strategies for Hybrid Ventilation in New and Retrofitted Office Buildings (HYBVENT)
    • EBC Annex 62 Ventilative Cooling

International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate

[edit]
  • Indoor Air Journal
  • Indoor Air Conference Proceedings

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

[edit]
  • ASHRAE Standard 62.1 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
  • ASHRAE Standard 62.2 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Residential Buildings

 

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